Yuan Dynasty

After the death of his brother Möngke Khan in 1259, Kublai Khan claimed the position of Great Khan in 1260. However, a civil war broke out between Kublai and his younger brother Ariq Böke, both competing for leadership of the Mongol Empire. After a series of battles, Kublai emerged victorious and solidified his rule.
In 1271, Kublai Khan officially established the Yuan Dynasty in China. It became the first non-Han Chinese dynasty to rule all of China.

Territory and Conquests

The Yuan Empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Ural Mountains, and from Siberia to Afghanistan—covering nearly one-fifth of the world’s landmass. It was one of the largest empires in history.
Kublai Khan launched a campaign against the Southern Song Dynasty in the 1270s. In 1276, Mongol forces captured Hangzhou, the Song capital, along with most members of the ruling Song clan. This conquest marked the complete unification of China under Mongol rule.

Achievements Under Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan built a strong and influential empire. During his reign, the famous “Four Great Inventions” of ancient China—papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder—were further developed and introduced to the wider world, significantly contributing to global civilization.
Under his leadership, education also flourished. Historical records mention the establishment of 20,166 public schools during his rule.

Foreign Campaigns

With much of Eurasia under Mongol influence and China fully conquered, Kublai looked beyond China to expand his empire. However, many of these military campaigns were expensive and yielded limited success:
Vietnam (1258, 1285, 1287–88) – Mongol forces launched three invasions, but only managed to establish nominal control.
Sakhalin (1264) – Eventually submitted to Mongol rule.
Burma (1277) – Became a Mongol vassal.
Champa (1282) – Also accepted vassal status.
Japan (1274 and 1281) – Two invasions failed, largely due to fierce resistance and typhoons (referred to as kamikaze, or “divine wind”).
Java (1293) – The invasion ended in failure.

Decline and Legacy

The Yuan Dynasty ruled China from 1271 to 1368. In 1368, it was overthrown by the Ming Dynasty, which pushed the Mongols out of China. The Mongol rulers then retreated to the Mongolian steppe, where they continued to rule as the Northern Yuan Dynasty.